A Plant Friend Most Would Pass By

Green leaves and red stems just above center are the plant of interest.

“When I discovered a new plant, I sat down beside it for a minute or a day, to make its acquaintance and hear what it had to tell.” John Muir, in Explorations in the Great Tuolumne Cañon, 1873.

John Muir—our great naturalist and conservationist—often wandered alone in the Sierra Nevada of California, passionately admiring and studying the plants. The vast wilderness enraptured him, but it also brought on feelings of loneliness at times. Perhaps that’s why he referred to plants as “friends” (1).

Muir came to mind last June, as I got to know a new plant friend near South Pass, at the southern end of the Wind River Mountains. For days I wandered through expansive sagebrush gardens bright with displays of pink, yellow, blue and white spring flowers. But I had to ignore them. I was being paid to search for rockcresses (genus Boechera, formerly Arabis)—small thin drab easily-overlooked plants.

But I didn't mind too much. I love the sweeping landscapes and granite blobs of the South Pass area. So does my field assistant.

Strolling with eyes glued to the ground, I pondered my fate—consigned to survey a challenging and esthetically unremarkable plant, the russeola rockcress (Boechera pendulina var. russeola). It is neither showy nor rare. Even worse, it no longer exists according to the latest treatment of the genus Boechera. So or course the more I thought about it, the more I became enamored of this plant! (I’m biased towards underdogs)

“But we know that however faint, and however shaded, no part of it is lost, for all color is received into the eyes of God.” John Muir (unpublished Pelican Bay Lodge manuscript)

The flowers of the all various rockcresses are small, white-to-purple, and 4-petaled. They’re useless for identifying plants to species. Mature seedpods (siliques) and basal leaves are required. One of the first things I learned from the russeola rockcress was that it can be recognized by the combination of pendulous siliques, reddish stems (hence russeola), and ciliate-margined but otherwise bare basal leaves. This probably sounds impossible to spot at the scale of these plants (a few inches tall at most), but the power of a well-developed search image is astonishing. Let’s have a look.

Below is a specimen from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium, University of Wyoming. Note the tiny white flowers. The normally pendulous arrangement of the siliques was distorted with pressing. The reddish color of the stems disappeared with drying.

The next photos show just how un-photogenic russeola rockcress is in the field, in part because the area is often windy. Still, the distinguishing features are obvious once one gets to know them. And fortunately, russeola prefers sparsely vegetated microsites.

Green leaves with ciliate margins (coarse hairs), reddish stems, pendulous blurry siliques.

Handlens is 2.5 cm long (1 in).

Sometimes the shadows are more obvious than the seedpods that cast them.

Distinctive upright green basal leaves at pencil tip, with reddish stem waving in the wind.

Ciliate-margined leaves; up close those hairs look gnarly! (click on image to view)

Though not rare overall, the russeola rockcress is uncommon in the South Pass area, which makes hunting for it fascinating—why does it only grow where it does? Muir pondered the same question; for him, learning why plants grow where they do was learning a bit more about the marvelous work of God.

After four long days of searching, I had learned that russeola (we're now on a first-name basis) is indeed restricted to rock. But it doesn’t grow in rock, i.e., not in crevices. That’s the habitat of the littleleaf rockcress, Boechera microphylla. Russeola prefers pockets of gravelly soil (decomposed granite) that develop in low, almost ground-level exposures of rock at the base of the big granite blobs.

Collection of littleleaf rockcress from South Pass area. Note upright very thin siliques.

Low rock outcrops such as this are prime targets for russeola survey.

Russeola grows on coarse granitic soil that develops in pockets in the low outcrops.

Russeola generally prefers less vegetated areas, such as this low ridge (dike?).

What's going on here?!

Dropseed rockcress, Boechera pendulocarpa (not to be confused with "pendulina"), frequently occurs with russeola on the same microsites. It’s the gray plant in the middle of the photo above, along with two russeola plants. But dropseed rockcress is a less picky plant, and it grows in a variety of habitats.

Though we’re now good friends, russeola has not revealed all of its secrets. I looked at a LOT of what appeared to be perfectly good habitat, but russeola wasn’t there. I wasn’t disappointed, or even surprised. After all these years I know that plants often don't grow everywhere it seems they could. In fact we should expect that, for a plant has to get to those perfect places—a seed has to land there. The great plant ecologist Henry A. Gleason made this clear, yet we often forget, perhaps driven by the human need to predict.

“Does a plant always grow in every habitat suitable to it and over the whole extent of the habitat? The answer is emphatically no. As previously stated, plants attain their range by migration. Possibly this plant is on its migratory way and has not yet arrived. … Possibly it has only recently arrived and has not yet had time to spread over the whole extent of the habitat. Possibly it is meeting with such strenuous competition from other plants that only a few individuals have a chance to grow.” Gleason and Cronquist, The Natural Geography of Plants, 1964 (2)

Russeola grows on bare gravelly soil at the base of this small outcrop.

Finally, some readers may wonder why was I paid to look for a plant that’s neither showy nor rare, nor even recognized by “experts.” I will try to explain. This is a long and winding tale that the faint of heart may wish to skip.

The main objective of our project was to locate additional populations of the small rockcress, Boechera pusilla, a globally-rare plant known from a single population (near South Pass). However, in the latest revision of the genus, authors Al-Shehbaz and Windham inadvertently (I think) expanded B. pusilla to include plants formerly called B. pendulina var. russeola. Does this mean that the small rockcress is no longer rare? No. It means the key and species descriptions were poorly constructed.

The authors lumped together the two varieties of Boechera pendulina—the typical one and russeola—though they acknowledged there’s no evidence they are conspecific. As a result (unintended), their key and descriptions do not address the plants we call russeola. Russeola material now keys to small rockcress (the very rare one), but only because there is no better match. As we discovered during post-field season herbarium study, russeola rockcress and small rockcress clearly are different. Hoping to eliminate the confusion, we collected and preserved leaves for DNA analysis, but Al-Shehbaz and Windham declined the offer, explaining they had insufficient funding to add another sample.

Thus russeola’s taxonomic status remains in limbo (3). But who cares?! The plants certainly don’t. Whatever we call them, these plants are real, and I’m happy to have made their acquaintance.

A dense “stand” of russeola—not a common situation.

Notes

(1) Muir’s passion for plants and his botany adventures are wonderfully recounted in Nature’s Beloved Son; rediscovering John Muir’s botanical legacy (Gisel and Joseph 2008).

(2) The first 10 chapters of The Natural Geography of Plants, including the discussion of why plants are restricted in distribution, were written by Gleason. Arthur Cronquist completed the book (second half) at Gleason’s request.

(3) Other experts recognize the russeola rockcress as a valid taxon. For example, our material clearly keys to and fits descriptions of Boechera pendulina var. russeola in Vascular Plants of Wyoming 3rd ed. (Dorn 2001) and Rollins’s 1982 treatment of North American Arabis (Boechera).

Pseudoflowers—Trick or Treat?

A flower-less rockcress.

Every spring some of our rockcresses forego flowering, and instead grow terminal clusters of fragrant yellow leaves dotted with sugary goo. But why? Generally plants produce color, fragrance and nectar to lure pollinators, which carry male gametes (pollen) off to where female gametes (ovules) await fertilization. But the yellow-leaved rockcresses have no flowers, no pollen, no ovules. And yet these plants are all about sex—fungal sex that is.

Rockcresses (Boechera spp.; formerly Arabis) are members of the mustard family. Most are perennials, with a few biennials. They usually produce white to pale pink or purple flowers, but the yellow-leaved versions are common enough to frequently confuse wild-flower enthusiasts.

“Almost every spring, someone brings me a picture or a plant of a strange little flower they’ve never seen before, and can’t key out or even begin to guess the family for.” Irene Shonle

“Strange little flower” (source).

Normal rockcress, and infected rockcress with pseudoflowers (Cano et al. 2013).

The yellowed rockcresses are infected with Puccinia monoica—mustard flower rust. Rust fungi are obligate plant pathogens, and include some of the most destructive agricultural pests (e.g. wheatstem rust, coffee rust). Some have extremely complex life cycles, involving five spore types and multiple host species in a single life cycle! (details here)

The life of the mustard flower rust is simpler, requiring three spore types and one or two hosts (full story here). If a wind-blown basidospore (which has a single haploid nucleus) is lucky enough to land on a suitable host plant, it germinates. Hyphae grow into the stem, tapping into the plant’s nutrient supply. But living happily ever after on a rockcress is not part of the rust's plan. Sex is its goal. Mustard flower rust is heterothallic, meaning opposite mating types are produced by separate “individuals” (rust infections) on separate rockcress plants. Opposite mating types need to get together somehow.

Puccinia monoica solves this problem by creating pseudoflowers. Like real flowers, they attract pollinators (mostly insects) by way of fragrance and the promise of sweet reward. How impressive that a simple little fungus has evolved to to grow such features! … except that’s not what happens, at least not directly. The real story is even more amazing. The plant grows these novel features … under the direction of the rust!

In addition to siphoning off nutrients, the rust reprograms the host plant, somehow changing which genes are expressed when. As a result, the infected rockcress never makes the transition from vegetative growth to flowering. Instead it elongates, grows extra leaves, and produces yellow pigment, fragrant compounds, sugary liquid, and wax. The resulting structure looks, smells and tastes enough like a flower that foraging insects show up, partake of a bit of sugar, and hopefully carry off the spore-like spermatia to receptive hypha on other rockcresses.

Bumps are spermagonia, which contain spores waiting to be dispersed and super-sweet liquid.

Pseudoflowers may mimic other wildflowers, like this nearby sagebrush buttercup (speculation for now).

With today’s molecular analysis techniques and model organisms (Arabidopsis thaliana, the thale cress, is a close relative of rockcresses), it’s possible to delve deeply into pseudoflower biology. In 2013, Liliana Cano and her colleagues looked at developmental changes in rockcresses infected with mustard flower rust. They found that for at least 31 genes, activity was significantly altered (enhanced or reduced), affecting leaf, stem and flower development; metabolism and transport of sugars and lipids; synthesis of volatiles (fragrant compounds); and wax production.

These changes can be interpreted as beneficial to the mustard flower rust. For example, consider wax production. Cano and colleagues suggest that the waxy leaves induced by rust infection serve to reduce water stress. Water-stressed plants often have shorter stems and fewer leaves—not what the rust needs. Perhaps the waxy leaves of infected plants allow taller leafier growth.

Gravelly soil drains rapidly, making for dry habitat. Looks like waxy leaves weren't enough to compensate.

Whatever the mechanisms, by enabling fungal sex, infection clearly benefits the rust. And the rockcress clearly suffers—no flowers, no sex. But what about pollinators? Are they beneficiaries or unsuspecting dupes? Some botanists consider pseudoflowers to be tricksters, luring insects into service with little reward. However in a 1998 paper, Robert Raguso and Bitty Roy pointed out that the super sweet liquid of rockcress pseudoflowers is popular with many kinds of insects, including bees, ants, butterflies and flies. And given how many sugar-oozing spermagonia there are on each yellow leaf, infected rockcresses may actually produce more yummy calories than uninfected plants. If so, then for pollinators, pseudoflowers are not a trick but a treat.

Foraging ant (in a hurry).

Puccinia monoica on Boechera sp. is the latest addition to my iNaturalist project, Plants of the Southern Laramie Mountains (two observations—one for the rust, one for the plant). To identify the rockcress to species, I have to wait until uninfected individuals are in fruit.

I found infected rockcresses scattered through this sagebrush grassland.

It’s still early spring at Blair (8000 feet elevation)—not much flower action.

Sources

Thanks to Elio Schaechter of Small Things Considered who recently blogged about Boechera pseudoflowers, which I’ve long ignored.

Caro, LM, et al. 2013. Major transcriptome reprogramming underlies floral mimicry induced by the rust fungus Puccinia monoica in Boechera stricta. PLoS ONE 8(9): e75293. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0075293 (free).

Raguso, RA, and Roy, BA. 1998. ‘Floral’ scent production by Puccinia rust fungi that mimic flowers. Molecular Ecology (1998) 7, 1127-1136.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00426.x/abstract

Plants & Rocks: South Pass Rockcress, South Pass Granite

The lineup.

At the southern end of the Wind River Mountains near South Pass—where thousands of travelers on the old Oregon Trail crossed the Continental Divide “with no toilsome ascents”—granite mounds rise above rolling sagebrush grassland like irregular lumps of clay. This is a great place to hang out if you like to conjure up the far distant past, for they mark the southwest edge of North America 2.5 billion years ago.

Late Archean South Pass granite; botanist (center) and field assistant (lower right) for scale.

But that wasn’t why I was wandering around these outcrops … slowly walking, walking, walking ... staring at the ground. I was searching for plants that grow nowhere else in the world. One has to look hard to find them. They’re inconspicuous, small, drab, and have no flowers this time of year. Not that flowers would help—they’re also inconspicuous, small, and drab.

The South Pass rockcress (aka small rockcress), about 10 cm tall; drawing by Isobel Nichols (source).

Thirty years ago, the South Pass rockcress (Boechera pusilla) was one of the targets in my first rare plant survey project. It was known from a a single location, which was only vaguely specified: “in cracks and crevices of huge metamorphosed [actually igneous] rocks off Wyoming State Highway 28, 39 miles southwest of Lander,” collected in 1981.

Boechera is part of the mustard family (Brassicaceae). It’s a large genus of subtly-different species—109 in North America, and at least 25 in Wyoming (experts disagree on classification). The group is thought to be actively-evolving (source), which may explain why rockcresses are tough to identify, and why field botanists are happy to ignore them. But I couldn't.

The flowers are small, with little variation among species, so we depend on mature fruit—siliques—for identification. Those of the South Pass rockcress are relatively broad (to 2 mm) and arch downwards but not sharply so.

Boechera pusilla, with spreading-descending relatively-broad siliques (seed pods).

One also has to examine the hairs on the basal leaves, visible with a 10x hand lens (click on images below to enlarge). Are they sparse, and simple to few-branched (South Pass rockcress)? Or are they dense, and branched multiple times (other species in the area)?

Sparse simple-or-forked hairs on basal leaves of Boechera pusilla.

Dense fine dendritic hairs on basal leaves of Boechera pendulocarpa (dropseed rockcress).

These are tough decisions but unavoidable because at least four other rockcresses grow in the South Pass area. Some of them hybridize, making intermediates. It’s a mess.

[Boechera used to be part of Arabis] “The taxonomic complexity of Arabis, in the broad sense, is legendary … most of the problematic taxa come to reside in Boechera. A rare confluence of hybridization, apomixis, and polyploidy makes this one of the most difficult genera in the North American flora [emphasis added] (source).

Maybe you can imagine the agony of a young field botanist trying to find this rare rockcress among common ones. My strategy was to collect all the different rockcresses I saw, from multiple locations, and send them to the late Reed Rollins at Harvard University, the expert for the group. It was Rollins who collected the specimen from “huge metamorphosed rocks” in 1981. My collections came back from Harvard with only one labeled Boechera pusilla, the South Pass rockcress. Was it from the same location as Rollins’s 1981 specimen? We’ll never know, but in any case, this rockcress was obviously rare.

In fact, it's rare enough to be a Category 1 candidate for Federal listing under the Endangered Species Act. To avoid listing, the Bureau of Land Management has taken steps to protect it, including closing a four-wheel-drive road to the site, and funding regular monitoring.

We don't mind that we now have to walk to see the South Pass rockcress!

Yours truly, counting South Pass rockcress plants in 1988, the first year of monitoring. WYNDD.

I returned to the single known South Pass rockcress site this year, to help with monitoring. Now I have 30 years of experience searching for rare plants, many of which are difficult to distinguish from common relatives (why is that?—another of life’s unanswered questions). It was a lot easier to recognize our target. After examining the various rockcresses at the site, I was comfortable making identifications in the field. A cheat sheet helped:

Modified from Heidel 2005.

The first step in a rare plant survey involves visiting known sites to develop a search image for the target species—a pattern that will really grab your attention. In this case it was the small cluster of green leaves below one or several stems with dangling siliques (pods). If I spotted such a cluster, I then glanced at the width and position of the siliques (relatively broad, spreading or descending). Finally I got down at plant level with my hand lens, and looked for the distinctive hairs on the basal leaves.

Armed with this search image, I went hunting. At the single known site, the South Pass rockcress grows at the base of a large outcrop of South Pass granite, in low rocky habitat with pockets of gravely soil, pretty much at ground-level (see monitoring photo above). I drove around until I found similar sites, and then slowly criss-crossed potential habitat, eyes glued to the ground. At the third site, I was stopped dead in my tracks by a cluster of green leaves below dangling siliques. The hairs on the basal leaves confirmed it—this was a new location for the South Pass rockcress!

South Pass rockcress grows among low rocks mid photo; main outcrop visible behind on right.

Microhabitat is gravely soil in pockets and crevices.

At knife-tip: cluster of green basal leaves, and three stems with drooping siliques. Not a photogenic plant!

Now the hard question—how much more is out there? How rare is the South Pass rockcress? There are many similar outcrops in the South Pass area … yet I had come up with only one specimen in all my collecting in 1986 … yet I didn’t really know what I was looking for then … and is it really restricted to just South Pass granite??! Obviously more work is needed.

The new site is exciting, but also discouraging. The population is really small, and with widely-scattered individual plants. Three of us, botanists all, went back two days later and it took us 15 minutes to find a plant. In all, we found only 11 after a thorough search of about 0.25 ha (half an acre). If this little rockcress sometimes (or often?) grows in small sparse populations, survey will be tough indeed.

Potential habitat: South Pass granite above rolling sagebrush grassland.

Finally, for the taxonomy geeks among us:

L to R: Boechera pendulocarpa, B. microphylla, B. pusilla.

Might the South Pass rockcress be a recently-evolved hybrid, rare because it hasn’t had time to disperse far? We know it’s an allotriploid (two sets of chromosomes from one parent, one from the other). Could it be the offspring of occasional crossing between the littleleaf and dropseed rockcresses? They’re common at both known sites, and …

“The sexual diploid species are relatively distinct from one another, but they hybridize wherever they come into contact [italics added]. Through apomixis and polyploidy, the hybrids become stable, self-propagating lineages. … for any pair of sexual diploid species (e.g., AA and BB), this process can yield different intermediates, including AB apomicts and both possible apomictic triploids (AAB and ABB). … Under these circumstances, even the most distinctive sexual diploid progenitors can become lost in a seemingly continuous range of morphological variability” (source).

Sources

Al-Shehbaz, IA, and Windham, MD. Boechera in the Flora of North America. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=104152&key_no=2 (accessed 27 June 2016).

Heidel, B. 2005. Status of Boechera pusilla (small rockcress) in Wyoming. Prepared for the Bureau of Land Management. Wyoming Natural Diversity Database, Laramie, WY. https://www.uwyo.edu/wyndd/_files/docs/reports/wynddreports/u05hei06wyus.pdf

Marriott, H.J. 1986. A report on the status of Arabis pusilla, a Candidate Threatened species. Prepared for the US Fish and Wildlife Service by the Wyoming Natural Diversity Database, Laramie, WY.  Available here upon request.